Those who have been brought up
in the West, in a culture influenced by science and materialism, will
inevitably tend to think in ways more in tune with Western Philosophers
than Eastern ones. Accordingly, it may be seen as useful to gain at least
some background knowledge of the greatest thinkers in the West.
It may provide reassurance that some of them actually reached conclusions
that are not disimilar from those spoken of in the Upanishads. (But then
perhaps this is sometimes because these were a source
of inspiration, e.g. as was the case with Schopenhauer.)
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If you are entirely new to Western Philosophy, you
may feel that some introduction is necessary and I doubt very much
that there is any better introduction than Hospers 'An
Introduction to Philosophical Analysis'. This is an undergraduate
text book but one which is entertaining and thought provoking, full
of real-life examples presented as imaginary discussions between
disputants. I can recommend this highly. 13 sample pages may be
viewed here.
(Buy US or UK)
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Another introductory book is this one by Richard
E. Creel. It looks at philosophy as a means of enquiry into problems
of life, and the book is broken down according to the various domains
of philsophical method: metaphilosophy, epistemology, theory of
value and metaphysics. And this works very well. It is called 'Thinking
Philosophically, An Introduction to Critical Reflection and Rational
Dialogue' and it is much more readable and enjoyable than the
title might imply!
(Buy US or UK)
"Reason is not a very effective tool
for achieving happiness; if it were, we would all be a lot happier."
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Perhaps the best known work is that
by Bertrand Russell, 'History
of Western Philosophy'. It is comprehensive and readable, though
there is perhaps more about the historical context within which
each philosopher lived and less about their actual ideas. Also,
this book has not been regarded particularly highly by some other
philosophers. (94 sample pages at this link!)
(Buy US or UK)
"Religious education is always an
evil because it means teaching children to believe things for which
there is no evidence."
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Though much more an autobiography
than an attempt to document the changing directions of Western Philosophy
over the past 2,500 years, here is a book I would especially recommend:
Bryan Magee's 'Confessions
of a Philosopher' - He has written a number of books and, though
not an originator of ideas himself, has associated with many modern
philosophers (including Russell). Magee really succeeds in getting
across not just how important is the search for truth but also how
intriguing and interesting. And he gives some personal but very
informative views on the ideas of many Western Philosophers. His
search stems from an experience as a child which caused him desperately
to want to find a 'meaning' to life. (26 sample pages viewable at
this link.)
(Buy US or UK)
"If all I experience, and all I ever
can experience, are mental states, what warrant do
I have for believing that anything exists other than mental states?
Indeed what warrant do I have for believing that there are any mental
states other than mine?"
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Another general book that touches
upon the ideas of a number of philosophers in its addressing of
the central problems is 'The
Questions of Life' by Fernando Savater. He is the Professor
of Philosophy at the Complutense University of Madrid and writes
lucidly and provocatively on a wide range of relevant topics. For
example, on the 'meaning of life', he says:
"That
life should have no meaning is not absurd, because we do not know
of any intention that does not refer to life, and beyond intentionality
questions about meaning are meaningless! What is really 'absurd'
is not that life should have no meaning, but to insist that it must
have one."
(Buy US or UK) |
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The idea that it is often the way in which we use
words that is the cause of our apparent problems is one that is
central to the philosophy of Wittgenstein. Unfortunately, he is
not one of the easiest philosophers to read! (Or perhaps that is
not the right way to put it. In fact, what he says is often deceptively
easy to read; it's just that you don't know quite what he is getting
at!)
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Perhaps prior to embarking on any attempt to do
so, it would be valuable to gather some background material. A book
which enables one to do this excellently is the biography 'Ludwig
Wittgenstein - The Duty of Genius'. A very readable and compelling
introduction to this enigmatic yet facinating man, who could have
been one of the wealthiest men in Europe but preferred to live on
the borderline of poverty, forever agonising over his worthiness
at the same time as he struggled to formulate his ideas and present
them to peers whom he thought unable to understand them. 20 sample
pages to read at this Amazon link.
(Buy US or UK)
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He knew that the most important aspects of philosophy
lay in ethics and metaphysics but also that it was not possible
to talk meaningfully about things outside of the phenomenal realm.
"Whereof we cannot speak, thereof we must
remain silent", he famously said at the end of his first
work, 'Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'. This may be downloaded.
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It should be remembered that Wittgenstein refuted
the main tenets of that work in his later work, 'Philosophical
Investigations', which was not actually published until after
his death. Another quotation, inciting us to look within for the
answers to the questions of life: "A
man will be imprisoned in a room with a door that is unlocked and
opens inwards; as long as it does not occur to him to pull rather
than push."There are 32 publications relating to
this work at Amazon.
(Buy US or UK)
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Perhaps the philospher whose work is most relevant
to the Advaitin is Bishop George Berkeley. His idealistic beliefs
depended on an external God who maintains the world during those
times when we are not actually observing it. As such, of course,
they differ from the views of Advaita. Nevertheless, his arguments
against a material world of objects, existing independently of an
experiencing subject are relevant and can help persuade the intellect
of the truths of Advaita. A relatively easy read, in the style of
a Platonic dialogue, is 'Three
Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous'. (Note that this version also includes 'Principles of Human Knowledge'.)
(Buy US or UK)
"But how can that
which is sensible be like that which is insensible? Can a real thing
in itself invisible be like a colour;
or a real thing which is not audible, be like a sound?
In a word, can any thing be like a sensation or idea, but another
sensation or idea?" |
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If you shy away from original works, as I usually
do, 'Berkeley
and the Principles of Human Knowledge' by Robert J. Fogelin
is a good guidebook.
(Buy US or UK)
"Berkeley is saying
that the nature of an object of perception is fully
exhausted in its being a collection of ideas of various qualities
or properties. There is nothing more to an object
of perception than this." |
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The only Western philosopher of whom I am aware,
who has written of his experience of Self-realisation in an Advaitin
sense, is Franklin Merrell-Wolff in the book 'Pathways
through to Space'. However, having looked at this several times
in the bookshop and returned it to the shelf, I could not personally
recommend it! It does seem virtually unreadable to anyone other
than a philosophy graduate.
(Buy US or UK) |
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The writings of many other Western philosophers
show that they, too, reached similar conclusions to those of Advaita,
e.g. early Greek Philosophers such as Heraclitus and Parmenides
and later, Plotinus; the Romantic Idealists Hegel, Schelling and
F. H. Bradley.
The philosopher who probably comes nearest to expounding
non-dual truths of the Advaita variety is Francis Herbert Bradley (1846 - 1924), the British Idealist. An excellent writer, he was
also influential in the life of the poet T. S. Eliot, who studied
under Bradley and wrote his PhD thesis on an interpretation of the
philosopher's work. His most significant book, which is effectively
on the topic of this website, is called 'Appearance and Reality'.
The book may now be obtained from Elibron
Classics. It is in two parts and is a facsimile of the first
edition. Price $21.95.
It may also be downloaded as a PDF file. |
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Another general book on Western Philosophical thought
is the small but excellent book 'Think'
by Simon Blackburn, currently Professor of Philosophy at Cambridge
University. Not particularly relevant to Advaita but highly recommended.
I have included a beautiful parable from this in 'The Book of One'. (Buy US or UK)
"The imperfections of Windows
have no doubt led to virtues of patience or fortitude, but even
Microsoft have never used that to defend the perfection of the product,
and indeed that is why they continue to try to improve it." |
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Plato should also have a mention, since his concept
of absolute 'Forms' has some relevance to Advaita. I have also used
his famous metaphor of the men forever trapped in a subterannean
cave and the one who escapes to the world of light and subsequently
returns to try unsuccessfully to 'convert' his companions. This
is from the dialogue 'The
Republic', which is one of his more substantial works, describing
the nature of his ideal society. 11 sample pages here. (Buy US or UK)
"The soul is like an eye: when resting
upon that on which truth and being shine, the soul perceives and
understands, and is radiant with intelligence; but when turned towards
the twilight of becoming and perishing, then she has opinion only,
and goes blinking about, and is first of one opinion and then of
another, and seems to have no intelligence" |
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Some of his other works are much smaller and perhaps
a more friendly introduction to this classic writer. 'The
Symposium', for example argues various attitudes to the concept
of 'love'. 5 sample pages here.
(Buy US or UK)
"What may we suppose to
be the felicity of the man who sees absolute beauty in its essence,
pure and unalloyed, who, instead of a beauty tainted by human flesh
and colour and a mass of perishable rubbish, is able to apprehend
divine beauty where it exists apart and alone?" |
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But, if you want to ensure
that you learn about Plato from the standpoint
of advaita, then the book that you need is 'Initiation
into the Philosophy of Plato' by Raphael. This
concludes with chapters on 'Shankara' and 'Platonism
and Advaita'. Raphael is possibly unique in being
intimately acquainted with both philosphies. (Buy US or UK)
"The One-One, or supreme Good, corresponds to
turIya, or Fourth, or brahman nirguNa (non-qualified)
of vedAnta. It is the metaphysical Being in the
strict sense of the word, or the Non-Being, because
it is beyond the bounds of qualified or principial
Being." |
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The 'Great Philosophers' series deserves a mention.
This collection provides very small, pocket-sized introductions
to many of the major Western philosopers, each written by a modern
academic expert on the subject. Each being only 50 - 60 pages, including
contents and index, there is no excuse for not finishing the book
and learning at least a little about these important thinkers. |
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Plato
Not Prozac by Lou Marinoff, Ph.D. This is a book about the burgeoning
field of 'Philosophical Counselling', rapidly gaining popularity
especially in the USA. The idea is that most of our problems are
not signs of mental illness and psychiatric help may actually cause
more problems than it solves. Instead, what we often need is guidance
as to how to examine and analyse the situation and where better
to seek that guidance than from the acknowledged experts of the
past two millennia? The book provides a cursory summary of the ideas
of key philosophers and extensive examples of specific cases that
have been successfully addressed. Despite the somewhat naff title,
this is a very intelligent and readable book that easily convinces
one of the validity of the concept.
(Buy US or UK)
"If you are experiencing
change or uncertainty or unhappiness and don't know why, your task
becomes to discover your purpose, avoiding the egotism of presuming
you already know, or should know." |
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'An
Introduction to Awareness' by James M. Corrigan.
James’ background in designing complex computer systems
makes him uniquely able to reflect upon modern Western philosophical
notions about the nature of perception and thought and the awareness
that apparently underlies these. He demonstrates, in a logical
and unarguable manner, that the traditional ways in which we
try to explain these phenomena must be mistaken and leads us
instead to an understanding of the true, if startling, non-dual
explanation. Written with careful intellectual rigor, this is
not always an easy read but its subject is of paramount importance
and the reader is amply rewarded for his efforts. This should
be a landmark book in Western philosophical thought.
(Buy US or UK)
Read an extract from the book. |
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The Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction, Peter Smith and O. R. Jones, Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0 521 31250 7. An extremely readable introduction to this fascinating topic, albeit not terribly relevant to advaita, of course!
(Buy US or UK) |
Since I have not provided a page of links on this subject,
here are two that should satisfy all of your needs. The
Philsophy Pages, compiled by Garth Kemerling provides information
at several levels. There is a dictionary of terms used throughout the
writings of Western Philosophers; a History, highlighting the key philosophers
and theories from the time of the pre-Socratic Greeks; an index of major
philosophers, with biographical details and summary of their ideas; a
guide to studying, reading and writing (papers and essays) and a 'timeline'.
Everything is cross-referenced with hyperlinks and there are many links
to other sites. A massive amount of effort has clearly gone in to producing
this and the results are impressive. It is even possible to download the
entire set, though you are asked to provide a donation for this priviledge.
A retired philosophy lecturer and author, Jonathon Bennett, is in the process of performing the most tremendous service to lovers of philosophy everywhere - that of rendering a number of classics of philosophy into comprehensible, modern language (without changing the essence). He has already 'translated' works by Berkeley, Descartes, Hobbes, Hume, Kant, Leibnitz, Locke and Spinoza. These may be downloaded from his website as PDF files for private use or for teaching purposes.
(Thanks to Greg Goode for this link.)
If you should require more specialised information, there
are vast numbers of links at the Open
Directory. These, in turn, should enable you to surf the web for the
next few years without running out of steam.
Link to the Advaita Bookstore to read other reviews of these books, buy them from Amazon.com or generally browse. |